Starlings
The Common Starling, also known as the European starling or in the UK just as the Starling, is a medium-sized passerine bird in the starling family. There are several sub-species of the Starling which vary in size and the colour tone of the adult plumage. The gradual variation over geographic range and extensive intergradation means that acceptance of the various sub-species varies between different authorities.
The Starling is 7.5 to 9.1 inches in length with a wingspan of 12 to 17 inches. The plumage is iridescent black, glossed purple or green and spangled with white, especially in winter. The underparts of the adult male Starlings are generally less spotted than those of adult females. The throat feathers of the males are long and loose and are used in display while those of the females are smaller and more pointed. The legs are stout and pinkish-red or greyish-red. The bill is narrow and conical with a sharp tip. In the winter it is brownish-black but in summer the females have lemon yellow beaks whilst the males have yellow bills with blue-grey bases.
Moulting occurs once a year in late summer after the breeding season and the fresh feathers are prominently tipped white (breast feathers) or buff (wing and back feathers) giving a speckled appearance. The reduction in the spotting in the breeding season is achieved through the white feather tips largely wearing off.
Juveniles are grey-brown and by their first winter they resemble adults although they often retain some brown juvenile feathering especially on the head.
In flight, the Starling’s strongly pointed wings and dark colouration are distinctive whilst on the ground its strange waddling gait is also characteristic. The colouring and build usually distinguish the Starling from other starling species although the closely related Spotless Starling from Iberia and north Africa may be physically distinguished by the lack of iridescent spots in the adult breeding plumage.
Like most terrestrial starlings, the Starling moves by walking or running rather than hopping. Their flight is quite strong and direct and their triangular-shaped wings beat very rapidly. They periodically glide for a short way without losing much height before resuming powered flight. When in a flock, the birds take off almost simultaneously, wheel and turn in unison, form a compact mass or trail off into a wispy stream, bunch up again and the land in a co-ordinated fashion.
The Starling is a noisy bird. Its song consists of a wide variety of both melodic and mechanical-sounding noises as part of a ritual succession of sounds. The male is the main songster and engages in bouts of song lasting for a minute or more. Each of these typically includes 4 varieties of song type which follow each other in a regular order without pause. The bout starts with a series of pure tone whistles and these are followed by the main part of the song, a number of variable sequences that often incorporate snatches of song mimicked from other species of bird and various naturally occurring or man-made noises. The structure and simplicity of the sound mimicked is of greater importance than the frequency with which it occurs. Each sound clip is repeated several times before the bird moves on to the next. After this variable section comes a number of types of repeated clicks followed by a final burst of high frequency song, again formed of several types. Each bird has its own repertoire with more proficient birds having a range of up to 35 variable song types and as many as 14 types of clicks.
Males sing constantly as the breeding period approaches and perform less often once pairs have bonded. In the presence of a female, a male sometimes flies to his nest and sings from the entrance, apparently attempting to entice the female in. Having a complex song is also useful in defending a territory and deterring less experienced males from encroaching. Singing also occurs outside the breeding season and takes place throughout the year apart from the moulting period. The songsters are more commonly males although females also sing on occasion. The function of such out-of-season song is poorly understood.
Starlings chatter while roosting and bathing and make a great deal of noise that can cause irritation to some people living nearby. When a flock of Starlings is flying together, the synchronised movements of their wings make a distinctive whooshing sound that can be heard hundred yards away.
The global population of the Starling was estimated to be 310 million birds in 2004, occupying a total area of 3.4 million square miles. Its numbers are not thought to be declining significantly so it is classified by the IUCN as being of “Least Concern”. It had shown a marked increase in numbers throughout Europe from the 19th century to around the 1950s and 1960s. However, declines in populations have been observed since 1980, including in the UK. This seems to be due to the low survival rate of young birds which may be caused by changes in agricultural practices. The intensive farming methods used in north Europe mean there is less pasture and meadow habitat available and the supply of grassland invertebrates needed for the nestlings to thrive is correspondingly reduced.
The Starling remains widespread throughout the Northern Hemisphere and it is native to Eurasia. It is found throughout Europe, north Africa from Morocco to Egypt, India (mainly in the north but regularly extending further south) and extending into the Maldives, Nepal, the Middle East including Syria, Iran and Iraq and north west China.
Starlings in the south and west of Europe and south of latitude 40°N are mainly resident although other populations migrate from regions where the winter is harsh, the ground frozen and food scarce. Large numbers of birds from northern Europe, Russia and Ukraine migrate south westwards or south eastwards.
In the autumn, when immigrants are arriving from eastern Europe, many of the UK's Starlings are setting off for Iberia and north Africa. Other groups of birds are in passage across the country and the pathways of these different streams of bird may cross.
The Starling prefers urban or suburban areas where artificial structures and trees provide adequate nesting and roosting sites. Reedbeds are also favoured for roosting and Starlings commonly feed in grassy areas such as farmland, grazing pastures, playing fields, golf courses and airfields where short grass makes foraging easy. The Starling occasionally inhabits open forests and woodlands although it is rarely found in dense, wet forests. It can also be found in coastal areas where it nests and roosts on cliffs and forages amongst seaweed. The Starling’s ability to adapt to a large variety of habitats has allowed it to disperse and establish the species in diverse locations around the world and resulting in a habitat range from coastal wetlands to alpine forests and from sea cliffs to mountain ranges.
The Starling has been introduced to and has successfully established itself in New Zealand, Australia, South Africa, north America, Fiji and several Caribbean islands. As a result, it has also been able to migrate to Thailand, south east Asia and New Guinea.
Breeding takes place during the spring and summer. Unpaired males find a suitable cavity and begin to build nests in order to attract single females, often decorating the nest with ornaments such as flowers and fresh green material, which the female later disassembles when accepting the male as a mate. The males sing throughout much of the construction and even more so when a female approaches his nest. Following mating, the male and female continue to build the nest. Nests may be located in any type of hole and common locations include inside hollowed trees, buildings, tree stumps and man-made nest-boxes. Nests are typically made out of straw, dry grass and twigs with an inner lining made up of feathers, wool and soft leaves. Construction usually takes 4 or 5 days and may continue through incubation.[29]
The Starling is both monogamous and polygamous. Although broods are generally brought up by a single male and a single female, occasionally the pair may have an extra helper. Pairs may be part of a colony, in which case several other nests may occupy the same or nearby trees. Males may mate with a second female while the first is still on the nest. The reproductive success of the bird is poorer in the second nest than it is in the primary nest and is better when the male remains monogamous.
Following mating, the female lays eggs on a daily basis over a period of several days. There are normally 4 or 5 eggs which are pale blue or occasionally white and they commonly have a glossy appearance. Incubation lasts 13 days and both parents share this responsibility although the female spends more time incubating than the male. The female is the only parent to do so at night when the male returns to the communal roost. Nestlings remain in the nest for 3 weeks where they are fed continuously by both parents. Fledglings continue to be fed by their parents for another 1 or 2 weeks. A pair can raise up to 3 broods per year although 2 broods is typical and just a single one is normal north of 48°N. Within 2 months most juveniles will have moulted and gained their first basic plumage. They acquire their adult plumage the following year.
Starling nests have a 48% to 79% rate of successful fledging although only 20% of nestlings survive to breeding age. The adult survival rate is closer to 60%. The average life span is about 2 to 3 years. A majority of starling predators are avian, in particular birds of prey
The Starling is a highly gregarious species, especially in autumn and winter. Although flock size is highly variable, huge noisy flocks (murmurations) may form near roosts. These dense concentrations of birds are thought to be a defence against attacks by birds of prey. Flocks form a tight sphere-like formation in flight, frequently expanding and contracting and changing shape, seemingly without any sort of leader. Each Starling changes its course and speed as a result of the movement of its closest neighbours. Very large roosts, exceptionally up to 1.5 million birds, can form in city centres, woodlands or reedbeds.
The Starling is largely insectivorous and feeds on a wide range of invertebrates in both the adult and larvae stages of development. It will also feed on earthworms, snails, small amphibians and lizards. While the consumption of invertebrates is necessary for successful breeding, the Starling is omnivorous and will also eat grains, seeds, fruits, nectar and food waste if the opportunity arises.
Date: 2nd January 2017
Location: Ham Wall RSPB reserve, Somerset
The Starling is 7.5 to 9.1 inches in length with a wingspan of 12 to 17 inches. The plumage is iridescent black, glossed purple or green and spangled with white, especially in winter. The underparts of the adult male Starlings are generally less spotted than those of adult females. The throat feathers of the males are long and loose and are used in display while those of the females are smaller and more pointed. The legs are stout and pinkish-red or greyish-red. The bill is narrow and conical with a sharp tip. In the winter it is brownish-black but in summer the females have lemon yellow beaks whilst the males have yellow bills with blue-grey bases.
Moulting occurs once a year in late summer after the breeding season and the fresh feathers are prominently tipped white (breast feathers) or buff (wing and back feathers) giving a speckled appearance. The reduction in the spotting in the breeding season is achieved through the white feather tips largely wearing off.
Juveniles are grey-brown and by their first winter they resemble adults although they often retain some brown juvenile feathering especially on the head.
In flight, the Starling’s strongly pointed wings and dark colouration are distinctive whilst on the ground its strange waddling gait is also characteristic. The colouring and build usually distinguish the Starling from other starling species although the closely related Spotless Starling from Iberia and north Africa may be physically distinguished by the lack of iridescent spots in the adult breeding plumage.
Like most terrestrial starlings, the Starling moves by walking or running rather than hopping. Their flight is quite strong and direct and their triangular-shaped wings beat very rapidly. They periodically glide for a short way without losing much height before resuming powered flight. When in a flock, the birds take off almost simultaneously, wheel and turn in unison, form a compact mass or trail off into a wispy stream, bunch up again and the land in a co-ordinated fashion.
The Starling is a noisy bird. Its song consists of a wide variety of both melodic and mechanical-sounding noises as part of a ritual succession of sounds. The male is the main songster and engages in bouts of song lasting for a minute or more. Each of these typically includes 4 varieties of song type which follow each other in a regular order without pause. The bout starts with a series of pure tone whistles and these are followed by the main part of the song, a number of variable sequences that often incorporate snatches of song mimicked from other species of bird and various naturally occurring or man-made noises. The structure and simplicity of the sound mimicked is of greater importance than the frequency with which it occurs. Each sound clip is repeated several times before the bird moves on to the next. After this variable section comes a number of types of repeated clicks followed by a final burst of high frequency song, again formed of several types. Each bird has its own repertoire with more proficient birds having a range of up to 35 variable song types and as many as 14 types of clicks.
Males sing constantly as the breeding period approaches and perform less often once pairs have bonded. In the presence of a female, a male sometimes flies to his nest and sings from the entrance, apparently attempting to entice the female in. Having a complex song is also useful in defending a territory and deterring less experienced males from encroaching. Singing also occurs outside the breeding season and takes place throughout the year apart from the moulting period. The songsters are more commonly males although females also sing on occasion. The function of such out-of-season song is poorly understood.
Starlings chatter while roosting and bathing and make a great deal of noise that can cause irritation to some people living nearby. When a flock of Starlings is flying together, the synchronised movements of their wings make a distinctive whooshing sound that can be heard hundred yards away.
The global population of the Starling was estimated to be 310 million birds in 2004, occupying a total area of 3.4 million square miles. Its numbers are not thought to be declining significantly so it is classified by the IUCN as being of “Least Concern”. It had shown a marked increase in numbers throughout Europe from the 19th century to around the 1950s and 1960s. However, declines in populations have been observed since 1980, including in the UK. This seems to be due to the low survival rate of young birds which may be caused by changes in agricultural practices. The intensive farming methods used in north Europe mean there is less pasture and meadow habitat available and the supply of grassland invertebrates needed for the nestlings to thrive is correspondingly reduced.
The Starling remains widespread throughout the Northern Hemisphere and it is native to Eurasia. It is found throughout Europe, north Africa from Morocco to Egypt, India (mainly in the north but regularly extending further south) and extending into the Maldives, Nepal, the Middle East including Syria, Iran and Iraq and north west China.
Starlings in the south and west of Europe and south of latitude 40°N are mainly resident although other populations migrate from regions where the winter is harsh, the ground frozen and food scarce. Large numbers of birds from northern Europe, Russia and Ukraine migrate south westwards or south eastwards.
In the autumn, when immigrants are arriving from eastern Europe, many of the UK's Starlings are setting off for Iberia and north Africa. Other groups of birds are in passage across the country and the pathways of these different streams of bird may cross.
The Starling prefers urban or suburban areas where artificial structures and trees provide adequate nesting and roosting sites. Reedbeds are also favoured for roosting and Starlings commonly feed in grassy areas such as farmland, grazing pastures, playing fields, golf courses and airfields where short grass makes foraging easy. The Starling occasionally inhabits open forests and woodlands although it is rarely found in dense, wet forests. It can also be found in coastal areas where it nests and roosts on cliffs and forages amongst seaweed. The Starling’s ability to adapt to a large variety of habitats has allowed it to disperse and establish the species in diverse locations around the world and resulting in a habitat range from coastal wetlands to alpine forests and from sea cliffs to mountain ranges.
The Starling has been introduced to and has successfully established itself in New Zealand, Australia, South Africa, north America, Fiji and several Caribbean islands. As a result, it has also been able to migrate to Thailand, south east Asia and New Guinea.
Breeding takes place during the spring and summer. Unpaired males find a suitable cavity and begin to build nests in order to attract single females, often decorating the nest with ornaments such as flowers and fresh green material, which the female later disassembles when accepting the male as a mate. The males sing throughout much of the construction and even more so when a female approaches his nest. Following mating, the male and female continue to build the nest. Nests may be located in any type of hole and common locations include inside hollowed trees, buildings, tree stumps and man-made nest-boxes. Nests are typically made out of straw, dry grass and twigs with an inner lining made up of feathers, wool and soft leaves. Construction usually takes 4 or 5 days and may continue through incubation.[29]
The Starling is both monogamous and polygamous. Although broods are generally brought up by a single male and a single female, occasionally the pair may have an extra helper. Pairs may be part of a colony, in which case several other nests may occupy the same or nearby trees. Males may mate with a second female while the first is still on the nest. The reproductive success of the bird is poorer in the second nest than it is in the primary nest and is better when the male remains monogamous.
Following mating, the female lays eggs on a daily basis over a period of several days. There are normally 4 or 5 eggs which are pale blue or occasionally white and they commonly have a glossy appearance. Incubation lasts 13 days and both parents share this responsibility although the female spends more time incubating than the male. The female is the only parent to do so at night when the male returns to the communal roost. Nestlings remain in the nest for 3 weeks where they are fed continuously by both parents. Fledglings continue to be fed by their parents for another 1 or 2 weeks. A pair can raise up to 3 broods per year although 2 broods is typical and just a single one is normal north of 48°N. Within 2 months most juveniles will have moulted and gained their first basic plumage. They acquire their adult plumage the following year.
Starling nests have a 48% to 79% rate of successful fledging although only 20% of nestlings survive to breeding age. The adult survival rate is closer to 60%. The average life span is about 2 to 3 years. A majority of starling predators are avian, in particular birds of prey
The Starling is a highly gregarious species, especially in autumn and winter. Although flock size is highly variable, huge noisy flocks (murmurations) may form near roosts. These dense concentrations of birds are thought to be a defence against attacks by birds of prey. Flocks form a tight sphere-like formation in flight, frequently expanding and contracting and changing shape, seemingly without any sort of leader. Each Starling changes its course and speed as a result of the movement of its closest neighbours. Very large roosts, exceptionally up to 1.5 million birds, can form in city centres, woodlands or reedbeds.
The Starling is largely insectivorous and feeds on a wide range of invertebrates in both the adult and larvae stages of development. It will also feed on earthworms, snails, small amphibians and lizards. While the consumption of invertebrates is necessary for successful breeding, the Starling is omnivorous and will also eat grains, seeds, fruits, nectar and food waste if the opportunity arises.
Date: 2nd January 2017
Location: Ham Wall RSPB reserve, Somerset
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